Psychology: Explanation of Attachments.

What is the learning theory?
-The idea that all behaviours are aquired using principles of CONDITIONS.

What are the two conditions?
1)CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
2)OPERTANT CONDITIONING

What is CLASSICAL CONDITIONING?
-Classical condition is learning by association
-->Ivan Pavlov, and his dogs circa 1905
-Terminology of Classical Conditioning (continued)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): any stimulus that will, after association with an UCS, cause a conditioned response (CR) when present to a subject by itself
Conditioned Response (CR): any response that occurs upon the presentation of the CS

What is OPERANT CONDITIONING?
Consequences to behavior can be:
nothing happens: extinction
something happens
the “something” can be pleasant
the “something” can be aversive
Consequences include positive and negative reinforcement, time out, and punishment.
-DOLLARD AND MILLER

What was HARLOW AND HARLOWS STUDY?

-Discovered using infant Rhesus monkeys that FOOD ALONE isnt sufficient enough for the formation of attachments.
-->The child needs CONTACT and RESPONSIVE CARE GIVERS

How to evaluate the Learning theory?

-LEARNING THEORY: Infants will be attached to those that offer best PLEASURE, DRIVE REDUCTION.

-Against this: SCHAFFER AND EMERSON: 39% of attachments werent to those who fed/bathed the infant
-HARLOW AND HARLOW: NOT food alone, ALSO we can not generalise from Rhesus monkeys
-BEHAVIOURISM: over-simpifies the complexity of attachements.

What was Bowlbys theory about attachments and SURVIVAL?

-Attachemnts are vital for SURVIAL, PROTECTION, FEEDING
-Infants have an innate tendency to form these bonds
-Attachments: a BIOLOGICAL PROCESS which must take place in a CRITICAL PERIOD
-Attachments help with future development (monotrophy/continuity process)

What is the CRITICAL PERIOD?
Attachments are a biological process
-->if attachments arent formed by 2 1/2, the bond WILL NOT FORM

What is the CONTINUITY PROCESS?
-Relationships with one special attachment (monotrophy) provides an infant with an INTERNAL WORKING MODEL.
-->SECURE CHILDREN: POSITIVE IWM: caregiver sensitivity
-->AVOIDANT CHILDREN: NEGATIVE IWM: rejecting caregiver
-->AMIVALENT CHILDREN: NEGATIVE/EXAGGERATED IWM: inconsistent caregiver

Evaluation of Bowlbys attachment theory?
1)Attachment is INNATE we are all born with this drive
2)Bonds are formed with those that respond sensitively
3)Must occur during the critical period of 2 1/2 years
4)We have to have a special bond (monotrophy)
5)This leads to an INTERNAL WORKING MODEL AND THE CONTINUITY PROCESS
--->It had a large impact on childcare
--->It encouraged research
--->It doesnt show why some children can cope with POOR ATTACHMENT EXPERIENCES.

How does LORENZ study support this?

-Konrad Lorenz studied the behaviour of geese (tend to imprint the first thing that they see)
-->2 groups: 1) Gesse stay with mother 2)Geese placed in incubator
-->GROUP 2: Followed Lorenz as he was the first thing they saw

--->This shows that young animals: likely to follow mother to increase surival rates
--->Characteristics that promote reproduction are selected.

Psychology: Bowlbys theory of Attachments.

What was Bowlbys theory of attachments?

-Infants need ONE SPECIAL ATTACHMENT, which is qualitatively different from their others.
-MONOTROPHY: RAISED BY ONE PERSON
-->Required for a INTERNAL WORKING MODEL and EMOTIAL MATURITY
-->IWM: enables indivdual to PREDICT, CONTROL and MANIPULATE their environments, BASIS of other relationships

What does THOMAS feel about Bowlbys attachment theory?
-Thomas claims that infants need MULTIPLE ATTACHMENTS, as various relationships cater for diffrent needs of the child.
--->CARIBBEAN CULTURE: various/multiple attachments

Is there a middle ground between Bowlby (monotrophy) and Thomas (multiple attachments)?
-SCHAFFER AND EMERSON: although children form various realtionships there will always be one PRIMARY ATTACHMENT.

Psychology: Cross Cultural Differences, attachments.

What is a culture?
-The BELIEFS/CUSTOMS that a group of people share

What is a subculture?
-Group within society that shares practices with their CULTURE yet has SOME SPECIAL DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS within this.

What did GROSSMAN AND GROSSMAN DISCOVER?
-German infants more INSECURELY ATTACHED, German culture of DISTANCE.
-->this doesnt mean they are INSECURELY ATTACHED

What did KROONENBURG and IJENDOORN discover?
-They carried out 32 studies in 8 different countries
-Their META-ANALYSIS showed consistency: same INTERACTIONS due to MEDIA INFULENCE

Error with Cross cultural comparions?
-SSR may not mean the same thing in different countries/cultures-->lacks validity
-We arent aware about HOW MANY INFANTS WERE USED in the study, may be small sample size.

STUDY OF JAPANESE CHILDREN BY TAKAHASHI.

Aim: To see whether the SSC was appropriate for Japanese children, testing whether SSC is a valid procedure for cultures other than its original condition.

Procedure:
-60 Middle class Japanese infant/mothers, Strange situation task took place.

Findings:
-68% were TYPE B: SECURELY ATTACHED
-0% were TYPE A: AVOIDANT INSECURE
-32% were TYPE C:RESISTANT INSECURE
-ALSO: 90% of left alone conditions were terminated as infants became disturbed

Conclusion:
1)Cross-cultural differences may be due to the fact that JAPANESE CHILDREN ARE CLOSER TO THEIR PARENTS. SSC was more stressful in this study.
2)Lack of AVOIDANT INSECURE may be due to the fact that the Japanese reguard this as rude behaviour
3)SSR doesnt mean the same thing for Japanese children as it does for american

Criticism:
-Research using children must be careful, e.g. psychological harm caused to the child.
-Carried out on Middle class not representative culture bias, but REPRESENTS CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
-TAKAHASHI: SENSITIVITY: stopped study with distressed children
--->LACK OF SENSITIVITY: the experiment didnt stop, he carried on overall study.

Psychology: Secure and Insecure Attachments

Why would one measure attachments?

In order to see how particular attachment types affect later development.

Is the Strange Situation reliable?

-Development of children often took place at around the same time in various cases.

Is the StrangeSituation not reliable?

-Attachments could MEAN DIFFERENT THINGS to different people e.g. SECURELY ATTACHED TO MOTHER BUT NOT FATHER.
--->Thus SSR evaluates particular relationships

What did VAN IJZENDOORN state?
-Children have relationships of different qualities- wouldnt it be better to evaluate ALL RELATIONSHIPS and gain an AVERAGE.
--->SS is valid but needs to look at more than one relationship

What are the causes of attachments?
1)AINSWORTH ET AL: CAREGIVER SENSITIVITY: Schaffer and Emerson
2)KAGAN: TEMPERAMENT HYPOTHESIS: innate characteristics of the child.

Psychology: Individual Differences with Attachments

-How does one test attachments?

-By evaluating the QUALITY OF ATTACHMENTS, individual differences can be seen.
--->Schaffer and Emerson: some infants STRONGLY ATTACHED

-How was this tested?

-MARY AINSWORTH: Produced a study into attachment quality: STRANGE SITUATION.

Aim: To find an adequate measure of attachment quality by subjecting an infant to a situation of MINOR STRESS
-->1) comfort seeking 2)proximity: measures of quality.

Procedures: 100 middle class AMERICAN infants and their mothers
-Observation of infants/mothers undertaking tasks STRANGE SITUATION
-Notes were taken of:
1)Separation anxiety
2)Willingness to explore
3)Stranger anxiety
4)Reunion behaviour

Findings: AINSWORTH AND BELL: placed children in 3 types
TYPE B: SECURELY ATTACHED: 66%- EXPLORED room, UPSET upon separation, HAPPY upon arrival, AVOIDED stranger: SENSITIVE MOTHER
TYPE A: AVOIDANT INSECURE: 22%- DIDNT EXPLORE WELL, AVOIDED MOTHER absence/arrival, AVOIDANT towards stranger: SOMETIMES IGNORED CHILD
TYPE C: RESISTANT INSECURE: 12%- DISTRESSED upon mothers leave, REJECTED MOTHER in her arrival, AMBIVALENT towards stranger: MOTHER SOMETIMES AMBIVALENT

CRITICISMS: Hard to generalize, middle class americans: CULTURE BIAS
-->MAIN AND CASSIDY: TYPE D: INCONSISTENT CHILDREN: CONFUSED, STERETOYPICAL BEHAVIOUR:: ROCKING.

Psychology: Development of Attachments

What is an attachment?

-Attachment is a stong, emotional reciprocal bond between 2 people.
--->the basis of emotional development

What were Maccobys 4 characteristics?

1)Seeking proximity
2)Upset upon separation
3)Happiness upon reunion
4)General behaviour toward caregiver

What was SCHAFFER and EMERSONS study?

Aim: They wanted to perform a study into the developments of attachments
--> Age children were
-->Who these attachments were to
-->How strong these attachments were

Procedure:
- Studied 60 infants from working class GLASGOW
- Every 4 weeks until aged one
-->MEASURES USED:
1)Separation anxiety: distress shown when child is separated from caregiver
2)Stranger anxiety: distress shown when child is in the presence of a stranger

Findings:
1)HALF of children showed SPECIFIC ATTACHMENTS between 6-8 MONTHS. FOLLOWED by STRANGER ANXIETY around a month after
2)NOT LONG after one attchment was made did the others follow, BY 18 MONTHS infant had more than one attachment
3)STRENGHT OF ATTACHMENT was strongest a MONTH after attachment behaviour was seen
--->INTENSLY ATTACHED CHILDREN: had highly responsive caregivers
--->WEAKLY ATTACHED CHILDREN: had unresponsive caregivers
4)In 39% of cases the individual that fed, bathed the infant was not their primary attchment

JOHN BOWLBY: 4 PHASE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENTS

AGE: 0-2 MONTHS: PRE-ATTACHMENTS:
-->Infants show similar response to ANIMATE/INANIMATE OBJECTS. Towards end of stage the infant prefers social stimuli
AGE: 2-6 MONTHS: ATTACHMENT IN THE MAKING:
-->Infants become MORE SOCIABLE, prefer HUMAN COMPANY.
AGE: AROUND 6 MONTHS: SPECIFIC ATTACHMENTS:
-->Infants show specific type of protest when with a particular individual. STRANGER ANXIETY BEGINS around this time.
AGE: 2 YEARS: GOAL CORRECTED PARTNERSHIPS:
-->Relationship becomes more TWO SIDED. Those in relationship can ADJUST their behaviour to the NEEDS OF THE OTHER.

The evaluation of Bowlby?

- In this day and age Bowlbys theory may not be as accurate, some children are MORE SOCIABLE AT AN EARLIER AGE
-Appearance of SEPARATION ANXIETY: children lose interest in things that disappear until they form object permanence

What is so significant about physical development?

-Shorty after primary attachment is formed the DEVELOPMENT OF MOBILITY follows.
-AINSWORTH: Ugandan babies showed STRANGER ANXIETY at 6 MONTHS and their MOBILITY WAS ADVANCED.

What conclusion can be made?
-There is evidence to SUPPORT BOWLBY: certain attachment types OCCUR AROUND 6 MONTHS (attchment were STRANGER ANXIETY IS EXPERIENCED)
-There is evidence AGAINST BOWLBY: infants are more sociable nowadays than previously.

Psychology: Assessing and Improving Validity

What is validity?

-Validity: the extent to which something measures what it sets out to measure

What is internal validity?

-The extent to which research findings are due to the mechanisms suggested

What is external validity?

-The extent to which results can be generalised to settings beyond those of the study context
1)Population validity: extent to which research findings can be generalised to other groups of people
2)Ecological validity: extent to which results can be generalised to situations outside those of the research settings

Psychology: Selecting Participants

What is a target population?
-Group of people who share a given characteristic which the researcher will draw a conclusion from
-->Usually too large so a REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE will be taken, used to generalise

Sample types?
1)RANDOM SAMPLE
2)NON RANDOM SAMPLE: 1) SELF SELECTED SAMPLE 2)OPPERTUNITY SAMPLE

Random sample?
Everybody within the target population has equal chance of being chosen
-->doesnt guarentee unbiased representation

NRS: self- selected samples?
-Participants volunteer on their own accord
-->yet this may not be representative of the TYPICAL behaviour, potential bias

NRS: Oppertunity samples?
-Research selects whoever is avaliable at the time from any population
-->biased, unlikely to be fully representative as not all SUBGROUPS are avaliable

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RESEARCHERS AND PARTICIPANTS:

What are demand characteristics?
-These appear when an individual attempts to make sense of the research situation
--->then attempts to act accordingly

Signs of demand characteristics?
1)GUESS RESEARCH PURPOSE: thus trying to act in a helpful way
2)NERVOUSNESS: feeling they are being evaluated
3)SOCIAL DESIRABILITY: wanting to be seen in a desirable light

Investigator effect?

-Effect of the researchers behaviour/characteristics on the investigation:
-->EXPECTATION EFFECTS
-->FRAUD: "massaging data"
-->Naturalistic observational studies
----->observer presense
----->questionnaires/interviewers: age, sex, expression, appearance

Psychology: Non-experimental Research

Sampling NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES?
1)TIME INTERVAL SAMPLING: The observation/recording of what happenes in a SERIES of FIXED time intervals

2)TIME POINT SAMPLING: The observation/recording of BEHAVIOUR occuring at a SERIES of GIVEN POINTS IN TIME

3)EVENT SAMPLING: The observation/recording of a COMPLETE EVENT each time it occurs

Questionnaire advantages?
They can produce both quantitative/qualitative data, with a wide range of design options.

Questionnaire design considerations?
-Open or Closed questions
-Question order
-Avoiding unncessary jargon
-Avoiding leading questions/value judements
-Avoid double-barrelled questions
-Avoid emotive questions
-Avoid vagueness/ambiguity
-Avoid inappropriate assumptions

Advantages and disadvantages of RESEARCH TYPES?

1) INDEPENDENT GROUP MEASURES:
AD: No issues with ORDER EFFECT as different participants are used, which may take place when participants take part in two or more conditions
DIS:Potential error due to individual differences between participant groups

2)REPEATED MEASURES: Exposing participants to each experiment condition
AD: Individual differences are eliminated as potential confounding variable
-Fewer participants required
DIS: Has less uses than for IGDs
-Order effect may occur as same participants are used in more than one condition

Minimise Repeated measures issues?
1)COUNTER BALANCING: equal number of participants undertake tasks but in different orders
-->Yet performing one condtion may help another condtion

2)RANDOMIZATION: a random stratergy for deciding the presentation order of experimental conditions (e.g. coin tossing)
-->may combinecombining both INDEPENDENT AND REPEATED MEASURES DESIGNS

Matched participants design?
-Gains key advantages from both IGDs and RMDs.
-->matching participants from each experimental condtion closely, in terms of relavant variables

-Participants are seen as some similar under particular condtions they could be classed as one person
-->one condition: reduces order effect
AD: combines advantages of both designs
DIS: finding pairs that match is difficult/time consuming

Psychology: Research Design and Implementation

What is an aim?

-The aim is the purpose of investigation, what the investigation intends to discover

Indpendent variable?

These are variables that are deliberately manipulated to create a change in the dependent variable

Dependent variable?

Are variables that alter in response to indepedent variables

What is a hypothesis?

-A hypothesis is a testable statement

What is an alternative hypothesis?

-Experimental hypothesis: It predicts something other than chance alone has produced the results found. In a well-designed experiment this will be the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

Directional Hypothesis?

-A directional hypothesis is an alternative hypothesis that predicts the direction in which investigation results are intended to occur

Non-directional Hypothesis?

-A non-directional hypothesis is an alternative hypothesis that does not predict the direction in which investigation results are intended to occur

Null Hypothesis?

-Predicts that there will be no difference between the results from different conditions of an experiment-->any differences would be due to chance.

Requirements of hypothesis?

-It must be a general prediction at the beginning of an experiment, must be clear and testable

Important elements in research designs?

1)Research method

2)Sample size

3)Sample method

4)How to brief participants

5)Medium of recording data

6)Technique for recording behaviour

Important aspect of designing experiments?

1)Provides an experimental plan

2)Ensure precision of measurement

3)Results can be fully analysed

4)Avoids potential ambiguity, confusion

5)High level of control over variables

What designs types are there?

1)Independent group designs: DIFFERENT PARTICIPANTS USED EACH TIME

2)Repeated measures designs: SAME PARTICIPANTS USED IN EACH CONDTION

3)Matched participants designs: PARTICIPANTS MATCHED IN EACH CONDITION ON VARIABLES RELEVANT TO THE EXPERIMENT

What are Independent Group Designs?

IGD involve using different participants in each experimental condition:

1)A CONTROL CONDITION AND ONE OR MORE EXPERIMENTAL CONDTIONS

2)TWO OR MORE EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS

*controled conditions are those that dont experience experimental treatment

History: Appeasement pt 2.

Why was appeasement used?

1)The public didnt want war
2)Chamberlain though Hitler was reasonable
3)Hitler wouldnt stop rearming
4)Britiain and France werent stable enough to engage in war e.g. military weakness
5)Nazi Germany appeared to be preventing the spread of Communism
6)Britains economy was suffering
7)Issues with Far East. Mediterranian and India

Thoughts of AJP Taylor?
Appeasement was planned and not just a political abberation of Britains foreign policy

Why was appeasement a good idea?

1)Public felt negative about war following WW1
-->Bombing of China by Japan-->Civilian fear
2)Britain wasnt economically stable, arms expenditure would be silly
3)Appeasement was commonly used before Chamberlain
4)Britains military was overstreched: avoidence was the only method
5)Political left couldnt decide what they wanted appeasement or war?
-Political moderates: Germanys right to recapture their land SELF DETERMINATION
6)To prevent the spread of communism
-USA wouldnt have supported the effort

What spurred war then?
-Germans invasion of Poland in 1939
-->Britain and France would fight Polands aggressor
-->Hitler clearly couldnt be appeased and was seen as a real threat

History: WW2

Appeasement?
A policy of accepting the imposed conditions of an aggressor
-->One tends to think of Chamberlain yet it was adopted by: MacDonald, Baldwin (Italy: Abyssinia and Spanish Civil war)

Criticisms of the National Government?
-Foreign Policy Makers: "Guilt Men"
-Those who prevented German Rearmament
-They felt Britain still had the power/resources to combat Hitler
-Hitler had the impression Britain would resist anything
-Failure to realise the importance of a Soviet-British realtion
-->Could have limited Nazi power
-->Nazi-Soviet pact 1939

Resistance of Hitler?
1)Re-occupation of the Rhineland
2)Demand of Czechoslovakia 1938--> Sudetenland contained 3 million Germans
3)Occupation of Poland 1939

Chamberlains reasons for appeasement?
-He felt Hitler was reasonable
-->Previous appeasement:Lloyd George TOV

What was COLLECTIVE SECURITY?

-Collective security: nations dont act individually but through joint action when protecting themselves
-->LEAGUE OF NATIONS: act collectively to maintain independece

Limitations of Collective security/LON?
-Lack of USA support
-Lack of miliary support
-Great deprssion, Chanak affair*

Britains feelings towards the war?
-Until 1939 Britain had a method of appeasement
-Appeasement of Italy-Abyssinia question: Britain wanted Italys support as it was weak
-->STRESSA FRONT: 1935: agreement/reassurance
-->HORE-LAVAL PACT: 1935: negociated land for Italy

Physical strength issues?
-Britain wasn't physically ready for war
-->army numbers had fallen
-->money on defence had fallen from 700 million to 115 million
-Lack of international support

Anti-war stances? Paradoxal views?
-Attlee and many others didnt believe in war but Collective security
-People supported the Collective Secuirty and LON, yet inorder for it to work force was needed
--->Anti war: Peace Ballot and 'King and Country' debate

History: Fascist Movements

When did such movements arise?

-During the interwar years more fascist movements were on the uprise

-Most known of these was Oswald Mosleys BUF

-Originally named the NEW PARTY: they believed in Conservativism and wanted a radical policity to reverse Britains economic decline

What were the parties views?

Started in 1935, the BUF was an anti-semitic party,

-who desired a coroporate state,

-self-sufficiency,

-Britian to not get invoved in other countries disputes

-wore a black uniform, was hugely influenced by Italian despot Mussolini

In what ways were the BUF powerful?

-By 1934 the BUF had 40,000 members

-Supported by Lord Rothermere owner of the Daily Mail

-->yet they depended on hostility towards the National Goverment

-Funding from Italy: "Mind Britains business campaign" Italys capturing of Abyssinia

Limits of the BUF and their power?

-BUF meetings were often obstructed by Communist/anti-fascist hecklers, lowering morale

-June 1934 rally in Olympia London: demonstration of 'black shirt' violence

-People were previously weary about the violence and fascist views of the BUF especially following Hitlers example

-After 1934 support for the BUF declined, Rothermere withdrew support for the party.

-October 1935: 5,000 support

Changes to their approach?

-They began with localised campaigns, e.g. "Stand by the King"

-They began more anti-semitic campaigns e.g. targeting Londons East End

-Campaigns for exploited workers

-->"Battle of Cable Street": BUF v.s. Jewish/anti-commuist unrest: 1936

--->1936 Public Order Act: Outlawed political parties wearing uniformas and authorities were given the power to stop demonstrations

-Mosley didnt want war with Germany, isolated the party

Was the BUF ever strong enough?

-They had limited appeal

-They had support in various areas but not strong: London, Yorkshire and NE England

-They had no permanent support base

-Economic decline

British: Labour Government 1929-1931

What were Labours spending habits?

-Labour came into power again in 1929: but was a minority government

-Labour came into power following the Great Depression, high unemployment levels

-The government was accused of 'Extravagent Spending'--> unemployment benefit was a huge expenditure.

What was the May Committee?

-In order to help the Labour party the May Report was created by Sir George May

-The committee predicted a budget deficit of £120 million; economies of £97 million, cuts to unemployment benefits and additional taxation

-->felt social expenditure was wasteful

-->others felt Britains fixed debt was the issue

-Britain needed to balance the budget to ensure funding from foreign bankers

What was the big deal then?

-Inter-argument: how they would retain the sterlings parity

-Many cabinet members (later Henderson), felt that these cuts would go against Labours inital aims

--->Henderson: under TUC pressure, although previously upporting MacDonald

------>They should leave office united

--Foreign bankers wouldnt agree to £80 million loans if Britain didnt cut/balance their budget

What was the Great Betrayal?

The 'Great Betrayal' was the creation of a National Govenment by Ramsay MacDonald. Due to the lack of concession within the Labour Party

How could the issue be resolved?

Keynesian method: budget deficit which would stimulate trade and empolyment
Mosley method: Expansionary economic policy
---->Historian method: SKIDELSKY, Mosley Memorandum 1930




What were the National Governments intentions?


-The National Government was not intended to be a permanent measure, required to solve Britains economic issues
-Advocated by King Edward VIII
-Acted in National Interest





Those against the National Government?


-MacDonald tended to listen to the views of foreign bankers and opposition parties


-Highly conservative


-It didnt do a great deal to overcome unemployment issues





Labours situation following the National Government?


-Labour faced defeat in 1931 winning 46 seats to the 554 won by the National Government


-Many Labour figures lost seats not to return to the cabinet again





Labour minor recovery?


-November 1935: Labours winning of 154 seats to the National Governments over 250


-Yet particular areas of the country refused to vote for Labour again





Labour Leadership issues?


-Arthur Henderson was the expected leader, yet his loss of seat meant this was made impossible


-Followed by incompetent leaders: George Lansbury, and Clement Attlee (mouse)--> yet his longevity proved his leadership skills





Labours influence/lack of influence?


-Labour was still popular in areas like LANCASTER AND NE ENGLAND as it was recovering from the slump


-Labour lacked influence in MIDDLANDS AND S WALES as they were becoming content with the National Government.

British History: 1918-1939

Britains trade following the WW1?

-Trade had diminished, £1 billion loans made payable to the USA

-War: Britains trade was disrupted, countries became self-sufficient/depended on other countries

-Other countries had: protective tariffs and government subsidies

What were Britains stables, any issues with these?

-Britains staples: older industries were suffering- COAL, IRON, STEEL, SHIP BUILDING and COTTON.

-Advances in technolgy, large scale unemployment

-Unemployment: N England, South Wales, SW Scotland

-Empoyed: S England and Midlands

-->The 1939 Wall Street Crash worsened this

What did the newer industries do?

-They helped prevent unemployment in particular areas: electrical, chemical and motor vehicle

Any economical issues of Britain?

1) PHYSICAL LOSS: War resulted in 745,000 dead and 1.6 million injured

2)ECONOMIC DISTORTION: Engineering/shipbuilding thrived yet other trades declined

3)DISRUPTION OF EXPORT TRADE: Industries who relied on export were over taken by self-sufficient countries or those that went elsewhere e.g. to Japan

WAR DEBT: selling of foreign assets and heavy borrowing- increased national debt, Britain taken of gold standard

Optimistic elements?

-By 1932 the steel industry was again triving

-Newer industries had higher levels of employment

-Mass production/ use of electricity

-Rising of real incomes, cheap mortgages improved living standards

What did JB Priestly feel?

The depression brought 3 Englands:

1)Old England: Countryside, picturesque

2)Industrial England: Smokey, depressed (Midlands/North)

3)Vibrant England: Cinemas, cafes, arts (Southern)

The Devils decade?

Seen as Governments incompetence/ missed oppertunities, unemployment and poverty.

Historian views?

DH ALCROFT: growth in certain sectors of the economy

JACK LAYBOURNE (Labour Historian): large scale unemployment, wasted resources

Hints of PROSPERITY?

1)Rise of living standards: higher real incomes in 1914, price of items constantly under those of incomes

2)Family size fell: knowledge of contraception amongst the working classes--> money could be spent on luxury items

3)Most benefited: The salaried middle class--> Suburban house building boom: 1930s

-->Mass production: car ownership, radio consumer rose

4)Working class: also benefited: rise in standards--> new jobs, new oppertunities, better paid jobs, wider variety of food due to packaging, housing/health care improvements

5)Working hours reduced following war meaning more leisure time e.g. weekend and day trips

Hints of PESSIMISM?

1)Mass unemployment: contrast of areas in England (John Stevenson)

2)Amount of long term unemployment, unlike usual seasonal type

3)Newer industries did experience some unemployment but this was usually short term and early recovered

Social/Economic impact of unemployment?

1)Govt recognition of unemployment gave benefit claimants an extention to prevent the Poor Law

2)From 1929: benefits were controlled by the PUBLIC ASSISSTANCE COMMITTEE--> the govt. later introduced the Means Test

3)The dole:

4)George Orwell: "Road To Wigan Pier": showed the strain working class endured: Liberal writer makes us question validity

5)"Fillers": foods that replaced nutritious meals

Psychology: Stress Management

Four Methods of Stress Management:

1)PHYSIOLOGICAL APPROACH: the use of BZ's/biofeedback to target stress-response system

2)GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH: relaxion/medication to reduce bodily arousal

3)SPECIFIC PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH:cognitive/behavioural training to help control specific stressors

4)ASPECTS OF LIFESTYLE: exercise/social support

Physiological Approaches to Stress Management

What drugs are used?

BENZODIAZEPHINE AND BETA-BLOCKERS

What do Benzodiazephines do?

-Reduce the activity of brain neurotransmitters STEROTONIN and CENTRAL BRAIN AROUSAL

What do Beta-blockers do?

Reduce activity in pathway of the SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

-->do not enter the brain

Draw backs of drugs?

1)DEPENDENCY: long term use: physiological/psychological dependency

--> BZ short term use

2)SIDE EFFECTS: drugs tend to have side effects, drowsiness/memory loss

3)TARGET SYMPTOMS: they dont treat causes, prevent actual issues being addressed

Benefits of drugs?

1)SPEED AND EFFECTIVNESS: drugs are quick working, they eliminate dangerous symptoms e.g. beta-blockers reduce anxiety

2)AVALIABILITY: they are prescribed immediately, and a variety of treatments avaliable

What is Bio-Feedback?

Are physiological systems which record the bodys stress responses e.g. heart rate

--> In order to reduce readings people are encouraged to do MUSCLE RELAXTION, MEDITATION.

-->Find a strategy to reduce stress and apply it to everyday life

Evaluating Bio-Feedback?

1)Effectiveness: succesful method for those who enjoy manipulating new technology

2)Role of relaxation: The relaxation and not bio-feedback are said to be the major aspect

3)Expense: Biofeedback is expensive (e.g. equipment and time)

Psychology: Individual Responces to Stress

Who studied individual responces to stress?

FRIEDMAN and ROSENMAN: studied the relationship between BEHAVIOURAL PATTERNS and VULNERABILITY TO STRESS RELATED ILLNESS

What is TYPE A?

Behaviour of those who:
-->constantly under pressure
-->competative
-->multi-task
-->frustrated by others efforts easily

Stress and Cardio-Vascular disorders:

Aim: To investigate the relationship between Type A Behaviour and cardiovascular diseases

Procedures:

-Structured Interviews: 3,200 Californian men 39-59

-They were given labels: Type A, Type X (middle ground), Type B (opposite to Type A behaviour)

-Followed for 8.5 years to assess their lifestyle/health

Findings: 257 men developed heart disease, (70% of these were TYPE A two times that of type B)

-Difference in group findings were independent of lifestyle factors, which can increase chances of heart disease

Conclusion: Type A behaviour increases heart disease vulnerablility

Behaviour modification programmes for Type A's could reduce heart disease risk

Criticism:

-Other factors may have contributed to vulnerability--> hardiness

-Not experimental study: No cause-effect can be assumed

Which factors must be considered?

1) INCONSISTENT RESEARCH SUPPORT: Studies have shown very different things: some supportive of Friedman and Rosenman, some negative which leads to the questioning of Type A behaviours value

2)HOSTILITY: High levels of hostility--> high level of Type A thus Cardiovascular Heart disease correlation increases

3)TYPE A HARDINESS: The type A behaviour may work in the individuals favour, coping well with pressure and competativeness-resistent to the effects of stress

4)PROTECTIVE FACTORS: Type A individuals may score highly on protective factors such as COMMITTMENT AND CONTROL. Also phsycial activity and social networking may help reduce the effects.

HARDY PERSONALITIES AND STRESS:

Personalities that are hardy act as a defence against negative effects of stress, this idea was studied by KOBASA

1) CONTROL, 2) COMMITTMENT, 3)CHALLENGE

1)One having control over their own life and not outside factors

2)Felling involvement in the world around you e.g. interacting with work mates and not just passive

3)Viewing life changes as POSITIVE CHALLENGES, not NEGATIVE STRESSORS, understanding life isn't stress free

What is KOBASA's evidence for this?

Those with hardier personalities had lower levels of stress related illness risk. Positive mindframe, situations aren't seen as stressful.

What were KOBASA's other findings?

KOBASA felt other factors were involved with stress management. KOBASA ET A. studied the absense of these 3 factors:

1) HARDINESS, 2) SOCIAL SUPPORT 3)REGULAR EXERCISE

--> Participants with NONE of these factors were at RISK

--> Participants with ALL of these factors were LOWEST RISK

Criticisms of KOBASA?

1) Participants: white coller working males- We cant generalise (women are different)

2)Personality components: Control, committment and challenge may not be clearly defined. KOBASA may be focusing on control and not PERSONALITY as a whole.

What is the connection between Gender and Stress?

There is no evidence to show the stress levels of the two sexes are any different, yet there are some difference reguarding STRESS RESPONSE.

What gender differences are there?

1)PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIVITY: FRANKENHAEUSER ET AL.: Found in examinations, BOYS: rapid increase in adrenaline levels that took longer to reduce to longer. GIRLS: Small, slow increase in hormone levels which lowered more rapidly.

Support: STONEY ET AL: women had a smaller blood pressure increase when doing a stressful task than men.

--> womens HPAC and ANS pathways may be less reactive

-->the attitude of men towards these tasks may create higher levels of arousal

2)Men show higher stress-related physiological arousal, thus they should be more vulnerable to stress-induced illness

-->Other factors such as BUFFERS are involved, thus this isn't the case e.g. gender diff. in coping stratergies Men: physical Women: social

CULTURAL ASPECTS: When going through issues, African americans, Hispanics and Asians turned to families yet Caucasians turned friends.

-->Genetic inheretance, diet, lifestyle: methods of coping may vary in each country

Psychology: Stress at Work

Why is Stress in the work place important?
-Companies trying to maitain productivity and performance
---> workers are affected by stress
--->stress doesnt just affect one individual
---> has physical/psychological consequences which may cause productivity issues

Stress sources?
1)PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: Elements such as lighting, temperature, office organisation and space can cause frustration.
--Increased energy used to over come stress causes frustration: stress/aggression

2)WORK OVERLOAD: Impact of long hours on life e.g. family, tiredness

3)LACK OF CONTROL: Increases stress-response, depression/illness

4)ROLE AMBIGUITY: Requirements for particular tasks are unclear/poorly defined
-->confliction of roles or the inability to separate one role from another

STRESS IN THE WORKPLACE: JOHANSSON ET AL.

AIM: To investigate wheter repetativeness, machine paced tasks and feeling of responsibilty increases stress related phsyological arousal and stress related illness.

PROCEDURE: HIGH RISK GROUP: 14 'finishers' in a Swedish sawmill
-Task: to finish off wood at last stage of processing timber
-machine paced, isolated, repetative
-Productivity influenced group pay

-COMPARED TO: 10 LOW RISK CLEANERS
-varied work, self-paced, socialised
-stress hormone (adren and noradren) in their urine were tested on days of work and days off
-Records kept of stress related absenteeism/illness

FINDINGS: High risk 14 secreated more hormone
High risk 14 secreted more on days of work
High risk 14 showed higher levels of absenteeism/stress related illness

CONCLUSION: combination of work stressors lead to chronic physiological arousal, illness, absenteeism
-For employers to reduce illness measures must be taken to reduce work stressors

CRITISISM: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES: people vulnerable to stress may be attracted to high risk jobs
-Doesnt show which elements produce most stress.

Psychology: Life Experince Survey, Hassle Scale etc.

What is the Life Expectancy Survey?

SARASON: LIFE EXPECTANCY SURVEY:
-Contains 57 items
-rated positive (+3), neutral (0), rated negative (-3)
--->helps with theory of individual differences

ISSUES WITH LIFE EXPECTANCY SURVEY:
-Discuss situations which are unusual
-People may not experience these stressors but are still stressed
-Issues that have more of a daily impact arent included yet do cause stress

What is the Hassle Scale?

LAZARUS ET AL: Stress rating, yet it includes the positive uplift scale which help with stress reduction. Contain different versions for different people.

Hassles? Concerns about weight, family member health, physical appearance
Uplifts? Relating to friends, eating out, getting enought sleep

Evaluating the Hassle Scales?

Hassle scales correlated with depression/anxiety
DELONGIS ET AL. more significant correlation between Hassle Scales and health

MOOS AND SWINDLE: EIGHT AREAS OF COMMON LIFE STRESSORS
-Illness and other medial problems
-Home/local environment
-Family finance
-Relationship with partner
-Children
-Extended family
-Work
-Outside family relationships
---> Assessed using LIFE STRESSORS and SOCIAL RESOURCES INVENTORY

How can we evaluate this research?

-Such research using scales demonstrates the idea that many factors cause stress and can affect our psychological and physical well-being
-Although correlations are not huge they are significant showing how stresses in our lives can affect our health.

Psychology: Social Readjustment Rating Scale and co.

What is the Social Readjustment Rating Scale?

Method of assessing lifes situations, major life events are scored according to the psychological impact they have on us.

HOLMES AND RAHE: Events in life force us to make psychological adjustments: the more we adjust the more stressful it is.

-->150+ score increased chances of stress related health breakdown by 30%, 300+ 50%

Evaluation the Social Readjustment Rating Scale: although small there is a significant correclation. But there are issues:

1)INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES: seperation from a partner is seen as stressful to one individual but a relief to another

2)CAUSALITY: Realtionship SRRS and health is correlational but tell us nothing about causality e.g. illness may lead to life problems and not the other way around.

3)POSITIVE LIFE EVENTS: The SRRS assumes that all life changes are troublesome, yet we know that they arent all negative

4)SELF REPORT: Self reports can be unreliable

POSITIVE ASPECTS:

1)First detailed attempt to QUANTIFY STRESS LEVELS

2)Confirmed that life events can lead to health issues

Life Changes at Source of Stress: RAHE ET AL.

-Aim: investigating whether the SRRS correlated with illness

-Procedures: 2,500 American sailors given the SRRS, to assess life events from the past 6 months

-Total SRRS rating was recorded for all participants

-Over the next 6 months details were kept over sailors health

-Life Changing Units were correlated with illness scores

-Findings: Positive correlation of +0.118 between the 2 scores

-Small correlation, yet it indicates the relationship (small but significant relationship) between the rating and health

-Increase in LCU and illness frequency

Criticism: Individual differences not considered: scales values may vary from person to person, people could create their own scales

-Doesnt explain cause and effect: illness-->life problems or life problems-->illness

-US Navy personnel restricted sample

-->ethno/androcentric: reduced validity

-Positive life events: the scale doesnt distinguish

-Self report: not always reliable

Psychology: Stress

What is GAS?
The General Adaptation: The idea that stress responces are similar amongst and animals and humans.
The GAS has three stages:
1)ALARM STAGE: situation of stress is registered
--HYPOTHALAMUS PITUITARY ADRENAL CORTEX: (HPAC): ADRENOCOTOCOSTEROIDS hormones and CORTOCOSTEROIDS are released
--HYPOTHALAMIC- ADRENAL NERVOUS SYSTEM- MEDULLA CORTEX
ADRENALINE/NORADRENALINE hormones released

2)RESISTENCE STAGE: stress response activiated coping with stressor

3)EXHAUSTION STAGE: If stressor lasts for too long
----> hormone reserves have been over used (resulting in stress ulcers e.g.)

GAS Evaluation:
1)EXPERIMENTAL SUPPORT: Selye was first to experiment this
2)USE OF NON HUMAN ANIMAL
3)INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES: GAS doesn't take this into account


Our bodies aren't made for modern day stessors

Psychology: Stress: Physiological Aspects

What did Hans Selye propose?

Han Selye stated that the response to psychological/physical stressors are the same for humans and animals. This is the General Adaptation Syndrome. This could lead to harmful bodily changes.

Transactional Model of Stress: Stress is caused by the misfit of PERCIEVED DEMANDS OF THE ENVIRONMENT and our PERCEIVED ABILITY TO COPE with these demands.

-Stress depends on perception

-Any stimulus producing the stress responce is a stressor.

Overview of stress response?

TWO WAYS the body responds to stress, both involve the ADRENAL GLAND. They contain two sections: the MEDULLA and ADRENAL CORTEX. In stressful situations the HYPOTHALMUS releases:

1)THE HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-ADRENAL CORTEX PATHWAY (HPAC)

-Controlers: hypothalamus and pituitary gland

-Pituitary: controls the number of glands released into blood

-Pituitary releases ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE (ACTH)

-The ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE travels to adrenal cortex

-Stimulating the release of CORTOCOSTEROIDS into blood

The HYPOTHALAMIC PITUITARY ADRENAL CORTEX pathway is activated when HIGHER BRAIN CENTRES detect stress

2)THE HYPOTHALAMIC AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM ADRENAL MEDULLA PATHWAY (HYPOTHALAMIC ANS MEDULLA)

-The AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: a netword of neve pathways from brain stem centre to body organs

--ANS controlled by HIGHER BRAIN CENTRE

--Maintains normal bodily functions in responce to demand

Divisions of Autonomic Nervous System?

1)SYMPATHETIC: stimulates bodily arousal (e.g high blood pressure)

--> release of ADRENALINE AND NORADRENALINE into the blood

2)PARASYMPATHETIC: slows down heart/blood rates, bodily relaxation

What was CANONS theory?

Our stress responces are best suited for our ancestors who lived in very different environments from those of modern day. HIGHER BRAIN CENTRE allowed them to adapt to this life: FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE.

Spanish: La media y televsion

Practia para los ejercisios sobre la media y televsion en el mundo y la influencia.

Los aparados: equipment
La televisión: television (medium)
La tele: television
Poner la tele
Quitar la tele
La television digital
La radio digital
El receptor
El/la oyente
El programa
La programación
El canal
La cadena
Una gama apliar de canales
El espacio
La empresa privada
El/la telespectador(a)
El mano a distencia
La television por cable
La television por satellite
La emisora
Una gama de programas
Las actualidades
El telediarios
Las noticias
Los anuncios
La telenovela
El dibujo animado
El concurso
El influjo sobre los valores morales
Una gran ayuda educative
Ejercir control sobre la selección de los programas
Dosificar el tiempo ante la tele
Adaptar su propio horario al de la tele
Avivar la imaginación
Producir un efecto hipnótico
Una fuerza social destructora
La violencia televisiva
Producir la pérdida de capacidad creative
Perjudicar el desarollo del niño
El video
El dvd
Grabar en video
La videograbadora