Psychology: Selecting Participants

What is a target population?
-Group of people who share a given characteristic which the researcher will draw a conclusion from
-->Usually too large so a REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE will be taken, used to generalise

Sample types?
1)RANDOM SAMPLE
2)NON RANDOM SAMPLE: 1) SELF SELECTED SAMPLE 2)OPPERTUNITY SAMPLE

Random sample?
Everybody within the target population has equal chance of being chosen
-->doesnt guarentee unbiased representation

NRS: self- selected samples?
-Participants volunteer on their own accord
-->yet this may not be representative of the TYPICAL behaviour, potential bias

NRS: Oppertunity samples?
-Research selects whoever is avaliable at the time from any population
-->biased, unlikely to be fully representative as not all SUBGROUPS are avaliable

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RESEARCHERS AND PARTICIPANTS:

What are demand characteristics?
-These appear when an individual attempts to make sense of the research situation
--->then attempts to act accordingly

Signs of demand characteristics?
1)GUESS RESEARCH PURPOSE: thus trying to act in a helpful way
2)NERVOUSNESS: feeling they are being evaluated
3)SOCIAL DESIRABILITY: wanting to be seen in a desirable light

Investigator effect?

-Effect of the researchers behaviour/characteristics on the investigation:
-->EXPECTATION EFFECTS
-->FRAUD: "massaging data"
-->Naturalistic observational studies
----->observer presense
----->questionnaires/interviewers: age, sex, expression, appearance

Psychology: Non-experimental Research

Sampling NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES?
1)TIME INTERVAL SAMPLING: The observation/recording of what happenes in a SERIES of FIXED time intervals

2)TIME POINT SAMPLING: The observation/recording of BEHAVIOUR occuring at a SERIES of GIVEN POINTS IN TIME

3)EVENT SAMPLING: The observation/recording of a COMPLETE EVENT each time it occurs

Questionnaire advantages?
They can produce both quantitative/qualitative data, with a wide range of design options.

Questionnaire design considerations?
-Open or Closed questions
-Question order
-Avoiding unncessary jargon
-Avoiding leading questions/value judements
-Avoid double-barrelled questions
-Avoid emotive questions
-Avoid vagueness/ambiguity
-Avoid inappropriate assumptions

Advantages and disadvantages of RESEARCH TYPES?

1) INDEPENDENT GROUP MEASURES:
AD: No issues with ORDER EFFECT as different participants are used, which may take place when participants take part in two or more conditions
DIS:Potential error due to individual differences between participant groups

2)REPEATED MEASURES: Exposing participants to each experiment condition
AD: Individual differences are eliminated as potential confounding variable
-Fewer participants required
DIS: Has less uses than for IGDs
-Order effect may occur as same participants are used in more than one condition

Minimise Repeated measures issues?
1)COUNTER BALANCING: equal number of participants undertake tasks but in different orders
-->Yet performing one condtion may help another condtion

2)RANDOMIZATION: a random stratergy for deciding the presentation order of experimental conditions (e.g. coin tossing)
-->may combinecombining both INDEPENDENT AND REPEATED MEASURES DESIGNS

Matched participants design?
-Gains key advantages from both IGDs and RMDs.
-->matching participants from each experimental condtion closely, in terms of relavant variables

-Participants are seen as some similar under particular condtions they could be classed as one person
-->one condition: reduces order effect
AD: combines advantages of both designs
DIS: finding pairs that match is difficult/time consuming

Psychology: Research Design and Implementation

What is an aim?

-The aim is the purpose of investigation, what the investigation intends to discover

Indpendent variable?

These are variables that are deliberately manipulated to create a change in the dependent variable

Dependent variable?

Are variables that alter in response to indepedent variables

What is a hypothesis?

-A hypothesis is a testable statement

What is an alternative hypothesis?

-Experimental hypothesis: It predicts something other than chance alone has produced the results found. In a well-designed experiment this will be the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

Directional Hypothesis?

-A directional hypothesis is an alternative hypothesis that predicts the direction in which investigation results are intended to occur

Non-directional Hypothesis?

-A non-directional hypothesis is an alternative hypothesis that does not predict the direction in which investigation results are intended to occur

Null Hypothesis?

-Predicts that there will be no difference between the results from different conditions of an experiment-->any differences would be due to chance.

Requirements of hypothesis?

-It must be a general prediction at the beginning of an experiment, must be clear and testable

Important elements in research designs?

1)Research method

2)Sample size

3)Sample method

4)How to brief participants

5)Medium of recording data

6)Technique for recording behaviour

Important aspect of designing experiments?

1)Provides an experimental plan

2)Ensure precision of measurement

3)Results can be fully analysed

4)Avoids potential ambiguity, confusion

5)High level of control over variables

What designs types are there?

1)Independent group designs: DIFFERENT PARTICIPANTS USED EACH TIME

2)Repeated measures designs: SAME PARTICIPANTS USED IN EACH CONDTION

3)Matched participants designs: PARTICIPANTS MATCHED IN EACH CONDITION ON VARIABLES RELEVANT TO THE EXPERIMENT

What are Independent Group Designs?

IGD involve using different participants in each experimental condition:

1)A CONTROL CONDITION AND ONE OR MORE EXPERIMENTAL CONDTIONS

2)TWO OR MORE EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS

*controled conditions are those that dont experience experimental treatment

History: Appeasement pt 2.

Why was appeasement used?

1)The public didnt want war
2)Chamberlain though Hitler was reasonable
3)Hitler wouldnt stop rearming
4)Britiain and France werent stable enough to engage in war e.g. military weakness
5)Nazi Germany appeared to be preventing the spread of Communism
6)Britains economy was suffering
7)Issues with Far East. Mediterranian and India

Thoughts of AJP Taylor?
Appeasement was planned and not just a political abberation of Britains foreign policy

Why was appeasement a good idea?

1)Public felt negative about war following WW1
-->Bombing of China by Japan-->Civilian fear
2)Britain wasnt economically stable, arms expenditure would be silly
3)Appeasement was commonly used before Chamberlain
4)Britains military was overstreched: avoidence was the only method
5)Political left couldnt decide what they wanted appeasement or war?
-Political moderates: Germanys right to recapture their land SELF DETERMINATION
6)To prevent the spread of communism
-USA wouldnt have supported the effort

What spurred war then?
-Germans invasion of Poland in 1939
-->Britain and France would fight Polands aggressor
-->Hitler clearly couldnt be appeased and was seen as a real threat

History: WW2

Appeasement?
A policy of accepting the imposed conditions of an aggressor
-->One tends to think of Chamberlain yet it was adopted by: MacDonald, Baldwin (Italy: Abyssinia and Spanish Civil war)

Criticisms of the National Government?
-Foreign Policy Makers: "Guilt Men"
-Those who prevented German Rearmament
-They felt Britain still had the power/resources to combat Hitler
-Hitler had the impression Britain would resist anything
-Failure to realise the importance of a Soviet-British realtion
-->Could have limited Nazi power
-->Nazi-Soviet pact 1939

Resistance of Hitler?
1)Re-occupation of the Rhineland
2)Demand of Czechoslovakia 1938--> Sudetenland contained 3 million Germans
3)Occupation of Poland 1939

Chamberlains reasons for appeasement?
-He felt Hitler was reasonable
-->Previous appeasement:Lloyd George TOV

What was COLLECTIVE SECURITY?

-Collective security: nations dont act individually but through joint action when protecting themselves
-->LEAGUE OF NATIONS: act collectively to maintain independece

Limitations of Collective security/LON?
-Lack of USA support
-Lack of miliary support
-Great deprssion, Chanak affair*

Britains feelings towards the war?
-Until 1939 Britain had a method of appeasement
-Appeasement of Italy-Abyssinia question: Britain wanted Italys support as it was weak
-->STRESSA FRONT: 1935: agreement/reassurance
-->HORE-LAVAL PACT: 1935: negociated land for Italy

Physical strength issues?
-Britain wasn't physically ready for war
-->army numbers had fallen
-->money on defence had fallen from 700 million to 115 million
-Lack of international support

Anti-war stances? Paradoxal views?
-Attlee and many others didnt believe in war but Collective security
-People supported the Collective Secuirty and LON, yet inorder for it to work force was needed
--->Anti war: Peace Ballot and 'King and Country' debate

History: Fascist Movements

When did such movements arise?

-During the interwar years more fascist movements were on the uprise

-Most known of these was Oswald Mosleys BUF

-Originally named the NEW PARTY: they believed in Conservativism and wanted a radical policity to reverse Britains economic decline

What were the parties views?

Started in 1935, the BUF was an anti-semitic party,

-who desired a coroporate state,

-self-sufficiency,

-Britian to not get invoved in other countries disputes

-wore a black uniform, was hugely influenced by Italian despot Mussolini

In what ways were the BUF powerful?

-By 1934 the BUF had 40,000 members

-Supported by Lord Rothermere owner of the Daily Mail

-->yet they depended on hostility towards the National Goverment

-Funding from Italy: "Mind Britains business campaign" Italys capturing of Abyssinia

Limits of the BUF and their power?

-BUF meetings were often obstructed by Communist/anti-fascist hecklers, lowering morale

-June 1934 rally in Olympia London: demonstration of 'black shirt' violence

-People were previously weary about the violence and fascist views of the BUF especially following Hitlers example

-After 1934 support for the BUF declined, Rothermere withdrew support for the party.

-October 1935: 5,000 support

Changes to their approach?

-They began with localised campaigns, e.g. "Stand by the King"

-They began more anti-semitic campaigns e.g. targeting Londons East End

-Campaigns for exploited workers

-->"Battle of Cable Street": BUF v.s. Jewish/anti-commuist unrest: 1936

--->1936 Public Order Act: Outlawed political parties wearing uniformas and authorities were given the power to stop demonstrations

-Mosley didnt want war with Germany, isolated the party

Was the BUF ever strong enough?

-They had limited appeal

-They had support in various areas but not strong: London, Yorkshire and NE England

-They had no permanent support base

-Economic decline